A HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY

notes prepared by Larry Brown

 

Reasons for Christians to study our history

·        These are not dead names from the distant past, but many are our fellow brothers and sisters in Christ, with whom we will spend eternity. We need to get to know them better.

 

Noll intro, Turning Points:

·         reminds us of the historical character of Christian faith

·         provides perspective on the interpretation of scripture

·         reassures us that most of our problems have been faced before: “Believers, guided by scripture, church authority, and the Spirit, have often acted wisely in such matters. Even when in retrospect Christians have made mistakes, the Lord has not abandoned them to their folly.”

·         helps to see our problems at a distance: “It is often easier in reviewing the past to discriminate between matters that are essential to Christian faith and those that are of relative importance or none at all.”

·         warns us of abuses: Throughout the entire history of Christianity, problems have arisen when believers equate the human acts of the church with the acts of God, when Christians use the name of God to justify their own desired actions. Studying Christian history can be an eye-opener. Heroes of the faith often have feet of clay. A Golden Age turns out to be tarnished. Oftentimes the church looks no better than the world around it. In all this disillusionment, we are reminded of “a divine patience broader than any human impatience, and a divine forgiveness more powerful than any human offense.”

 

Further challenges for Churches of Christ (Allen and Hughes, Discovering our Roots: the Ancestry of Churches of Christ. 1988)

·         “We often assume that our roots are simply in the NT and that we really have not been shaped in any significant way by the intervening history. We assume our churches are simply NT churches, nothing more or less. The sects and denominations of Protestantism may be products of history, but our origins come entirely from the Bible.”

·         “The conscious rejection of tradition leads only to the development of unconscious ones … We can deny tradition and its effects on us but we cannot escape them.” We are either “conscious participants or unconscious victims.”

·         “Without a sense of history, we are not aware of tradition. It is just when we think ourselves entirely immune from tradition and culture that we are most susceptible to their influences.”

·         “Tradition is the living faith of the dead; traditionalism is the dead faith of the living.”

·         “A church that imagines it stands beyond history, beyond conformity to culture … has little to offer the world. But a church that owns up to its blunders and compromises – its humanness – is a church that can both receive and reflect the love and grace of God to the world around it.”

 

 

Part 1: Early Church Period

 

Three major transitions:

·        From Jewish to Gentile environment: Jews had different presuppositions about monotheism, ethics (especially sexual), the concept of history progressing toward the final judgement of God, and the authority of OT scripture.

·        From Apostolic age to Church Fathers: raising questions of continuity (are we the same church as the 1st century), authority of NT scripture (formation of the NT canon), and selection of leadership.

·        From persecuted sect to official religion of the Empire: challenges of Christianity having and abusing political power, and the church becoming too comfortable with the dominant culture.

 

FIRST CENTURY

 

Acts ends probably about 62 AD with Paul under house arrest in Rome. His late letters may come from this period.

Persecution in Rome under Nero 64 (death of Peter and Paul)

Jewish wars and fall of Jerusalem (66-70), oddly never mentioned in late NT writings

John’s gospel, his letters, Revelation (90-95); limited persecution during this time under Domitian

 

Clement's Letter to the Corinthians

Author: by early tradition Clement was the third bishop of Rome 90-100 AD (although little sense of "papal" authority in this letter; Ignatius does not refer to any bishops in his letter to Rome). Date 95-96, after persecution of Domitian: "our recent series of misfortunes and setbacks" (1); this makes the letter contemporary with Revelation. This letter is included in the 5th century NT manuscript Alexandrianus (in the British Museum). Eusebius (4th c. church historian) says it was read in all the churches. “If things had been just a little different, some of [these writings] would have been scripture… and been familiar to every Bible reader in the world.” (Staniforth, Early Christian Writings)

 

Occasion for letter: Clement writes primarily to warn of the sin of pride (3), disunity, and rebellion against leaders/bishops (44)

·        Clement writes that, before the church at Corinth was known for its humility and absence of pride, but now “all have fallen back into the sin of envy, the sin that brought death into the world.” (3). Similar problem which Paul addresses in 1 Corinthians: “Read your letter from the blessed apostle Paul again.” (47) Clement seems to be familiar with at least ten of Paul’s letters.

·        Using the example of the saints’ humble faith, he mentions Rahab who let down a scarlet ribbon from her house, “thereby typifying the redemption which would flow through the blood of the Lord to all those who believe and hope in God.” (12)

·        Quotes Isaiah 53 as example of humility; Christ-centered ethics (similar to Paul): “You see, beloved, what is the example which has been given us; for if the Lord thus humbled Himself, what shall we do who have through Him come under the yoke of His grace?” (16)

·        Clement refers to the mythical phoenix, who builds a nest and sets itself on fire, and from the ashes rises a new phoenix. He treats this story as fact, testifying to the marvels of God’s creation (25)

·        “And we, too, being called by His will in Christ Jesus, are not justified by ourselves, nor by our own wisdom, or understanding, or godliness, or works which we have done in holiness of heart; but by that faith through which, from the beginning, Almighty God has justified all men; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.” (32)

·        Christ brought illumination and knowledge of God: “Through him we can look up to the highest heaven and see as in a glass the peerless perfection of the face of God.” In him “we taste the wisdom of eternity” (36). “…Jesus Christ, by whom He has called us out of darkness to light and from ignorance to the clear knowledge of the glory of his name” (59). Similarly, the Didache thanks God for life and knowledge.

·        “Let him who has love in Christ keep the commandments of Christ. Who can describe the [blessed] bond of the love of God? What man is able to tell the excellence of its beauty, as it ought to be told? The height to which love exalts is unspeakable. Love unites us to God. Love covers a multitude of sins. Love bears all things, is long-suffering in all things. There is nothing base, nothing arrogant in love. Love admits of no divisions: love gives rise to no discord: love does all things in harmony. By love have all the elect of God been made perfect; without love nothing is well-pleasing to God. In love has the Lord taken us to Himself. On account of the Love he bore us, Jesus Christ our Lord gave His blood for us by the will of God; His flesh for our flesh, and His soul for our souls.” (49)

·        Clement mentions the deaths of Peter and Paul (5). Eusebius says they were killed during Nero’s time.

 

Didache  “teaching” (c 80-120) discovered in 1873

·         “And concerning baptism, baptize this way: Having first said all these things, baptize into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living [running] water. But if you have no living water, baptize into other water; and if you cannot do so in cold water, do so in warm. But if you have neither, pour out water three times upon the head into the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit. But before the baptism let the baptizer fast, and the baptized, and whoever else can; but you shall order the baptized to fast one or two days before.”

·         “Now concerning the Eucharist, give thanks this way [“eucharist” means thanksgiving]. First, concerning the cup: We thank you, our Father, for the holy vine of David your servant, which You made known to us through Jesus your Servant; to you be the glory for ever. And concerning the broken bread: We thank you, our Father, for the life and knowledge which You made known to us through Jesus your Servant; to you be the glory for ever. Even as this broken bread was scattered over the hills, and was gathered together and became one, so let your Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into your kingdom; for yours is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ for ever. But let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist, unless they have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, "Give not that which is holy to the dogs.”

·         Note no mention in communion prayer of Christ's death, blood, sacrifice; instead, key themes are unity and eschatology.

·         “Concerning the apostles and prophets, act according to the decree of the Gospel. Let every apostle who comes to you be received as the Lord. But he shall not remain more than one day; or two days, if there's a need. But if he remains three days, he is a false prophet. And when the apostle goes away, let him take nothing but bread until he lodges. If he asks for money, he is a false prophet. And every prophet who speaks in the Spirit you shall neither try nor judge; for every sin shall be forgiven, but this sin shall not be forgiven. But not every one who speaks in the Spirit is a prophet; but only if he holds the ways of the Lord. Therefore from their ways shall the false prophet and the prophet be known. And every prophet who orders a meal in the Spirit does not eat it, unless he is indeed a false prophet. And every prophet who teaches the truth, but does not do what he teaches, is a false prophet.”

·         “Then shall appear the world-deceiver as Son of God, and shall do signs and wonders, and the earth shall be delivered into his hands, and he shall do iniquitous things which have never yet come to pass since the beginning. Then shall the creation of men come into the fire of trial, and many shall be made to stumble and shall perish; but those who endure in their faith shall be saved from under the curse itself. And then shall appear the signs of the truth: first, the sign of an outspreading in heaven, then the sign of the sound of the trumpet. And third, the resurrection of the dead -- yet not of all, but as it is said: The Lord shall come and all His saints with Him. Then shall the world see the Lord coming upon the clouds of heaven.”

·         "Two Ways" section also found in Barnabas and similar to Qumran Manual of Discipline; probably Christian adaptation of earlier Jewish document.

 

SECOND CENTURY

 

Letters of Ignatius (107 AD)

·        Bishop of Antioch; almost nothing known about his life. Eusebius reports he died in Rome 107 AD, during celebration of Trajan's victory (10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals died). He wrote seven letters to churches along the way to Rome.

·        Three crucial themes: authority of the bishop, glory of martyrdom, and problems with heresy and division:

1.   Docetism ("appears") was an attempt to rationalize faith, using current philosophy of materialistic dualism (spirit = good, body = evil). They claimed Jesus’ physical body was a phantom, he only appeared to be human. Ignatius’ dogmatic affirmations of the virgin birth, suffering under Pilate, etc. challenging docetism are early forms of the Creed. Docetism can be found in late NT letters: Cerinthus (100 AD) is possibly the subject of controversy in 1 John (story of John running out of the bath). Problem in letters to Tralles, Smyrna, Magnesia.

2.   Judaizers, similar to those Paul addressed in Galatians, insisted that Gentiles act like Jews. Some Jewish Christians may have wanted to return to their roots in Judaism. Problem with Philadelphians and Magnesians.

·        Ephesians: Ignatius looks forward to martyrdom, considering it the means to becoming a “true disciple” (1). He calls his chains a necklace of spiritual pearls (11). He emphasizes the importance of the bishop in each congregation; church in harmony like a choir under his direction (4). Christians carry the Name (in Antioch people first called Christians, possibly in derision, but Ignatius wears it with pride); emphasis on true flesh (7). Interesting analogy: “being stones of the temple of the Father, prepared for the building of God the Father, and drawn up on high by the instrument of Jesus Christ, which is the cross, making use of the Holy Spirit as a rope, while your faith was the means by which you ascended, and your love the way which led up to God” (9). “The last times are upon us” (11). Jesus’ baptism purified the water (18). The virgin conception and true identity of Jesus were hidden from Satan (19); this idea of God’s deception of Satan led to Gregory of Nyssa’s snare doctrine with Jesus’ body “baiting the trap.” Ignatius calls communion "the medicine of immortality." (20) High Christology: he is “both made and not made, God existing in flesh.”

·        Magnesians: describes three tiers of leaders (bishop, elders, deacons). Mentions worship on Sunday, not the Jewish Sabbath (9). Earliest use in Greek of noun "Christianity" (10).

·        Romans: he calls Christ “my God.” Martyrdom described as "an intelligible utterance of God" (2) He asks them not to pray for his release: “I am truly in earnest about dying for God, if only you put no obstacles in the way. I must implore you to do me no such untimely kindness; pray leave me to be a meal for the beasts, for it is they who can provide my way to God. I am His wheat, ground fine by the lions’ teeth to be made purest bread for Christ. Better still, incite the creatures to become my sepulcher, so that I need not be a burden to anyone after I fall asleep. When there is no trace of my body left for the world to see, then I shall truly be Jesus’ disciple” (4).

·        Philadelphians: unity found in one Eucharist administered by one bishop

·        Smyrneans: Docetic heresy: “And He suffered truly, even as also He truly raised up Himself, not, as certain unbelievers maintain, that He only seemed to suffer, as they themselves only seem to be [Christians].” One day they will become phantoms without substance themselves (2). These heretics rejected the Lord’s supper as a material substance. Ignatius says the Eucharist is the same body as the Lord Jesus, perhaps the earliest evidence suggesting to some the idea of transubstantiation (7). First use of "catholic" church, meaning universal. Polycarp their bishop; Ignatius wrote a separate letter to him as well (8).

 

Martyrdom of Polycarp

·        Pupil of John in Ephesus, mentor of Irenaeus, martyred in 155 at the age of 86; earliest martyrology honoring his death and others. We also have his letter to the Philippians which mentions Ignatius, problem of docetism, love of money.

·        The martyrs “displayed such heroism that not a cry or a groan escaped from any of them; which seemed a clear proof to us all that in that hour of anguish those martyr-heroes of Christ were not present in the body at all, or better still, that the Lord was standing at their side … they made light of the cruelties of this world and at the cost of a single hour purchased life everlasting. For them the fires of their barbarous tormentors had a grateful coolness, for they held ever before their eyes their escape from the unquenchable flames of eternity.” (2)

·        Polycarp was betrayed by a servant, like Christ in the middle of the night.

·        When ordered to “revile your Christ,” Polycarp responded, “86 years have I served him, and he has done me no wrong. How then can I blaspheme my King and my Savior?”

·        Reports of miracles: the fire would not burn him but surrounded him like sails of a ship in the wind. Then when they stabbed him with a sword, a dove flew out of his breast, and enough blood flowed to extinguish the flames.

·        His bones were gathered and buried, where Christians assembled to celebrate the “birthday of his martyrdom.”

 

Letter to Diognetus

·        Anonymous apology addressed to pagan reader, a reasoned defense of Christianity. Diognetus means "heaven-born" and may indicate royal reader. No certain date but probably mid 2nd c. Written to an unbeliever, contains few scripture quotes, concentrates rather on first principles about God from nature and reason, refutes idolatry and Judaism.

·        foolishness of idolatry, appeals to reason (2)     

·        compares Jewish sacrifices to idol worship: “When they boast that a bodily mutilation is evidence of their inclusion among the elect, what does this deserve but to be laughed out of court?” (4). This is the first sign of anti-Jewish sentiments in early Christian writings (although understandable in light of Jewish opposition, and involvement in Polycarp's death). Paul's arguments were against legalistic Judaizers who wanted to circumcise Gentiles (3).    

·        Similarities to Marcion (his Antitheses contrasts OT / NT) but different; in Diognetus the God of Creation = God of Love, God of Judgement = God of Redemption

·        Christians are decent, moral citizens, rational, peaceful, loyal, no secret society of rebels or eccentrics (as Jews are); he refutes common rumors that love feasts are orgies--wordplay: common table (koinein) not bed (koitein); irony that persecuted Christians increase in numbers (5).           

·        In the classical world, ancient religions were respected as truth; Christians had to defend their "new" religion as a mystery hidden by God but now revealed in Christ. Logos as God's Truth/Wisdom and Logos as Creative Power proceeding from God. Difference again is incarnation, not just revelation of timeless truth but historical act (7).         

·        Christ as substitution and ransom: “He took our sins upon himself and gave his own Son as a ransom for us” (9)       

·        Curious absence of key terms: cross, resurrection, clergy, sacraments

 

Early Christian Anti-Semitism

·        After the fall of Jerusalem (70 AD), Jews may have felt the need to unite against Christians. Jews took an active part in condemning Polycarp at his mock trial.

·        “Epistle of Barnabas” (70-132 AD), included in 4th c. NT manuscript Sinaiticus (in British Museum), quoted as scripture by Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Continues discussion from Romans and Hebrews concerning the relationship of Judaism to Christianity, but this writer makes a harsh break with the past.

·        “Do not be like some and heap up your sins by saying that the covenant is theirs [Jews] and ours [Christians]. It is ours! They lost it completely when Moses had barely received it.” (4)

·        Referring to events in 70 AD: “how mistaken these miserable folk were in pinning their hopes to the building itself … after their armed rebellion it was demolished by their enemies … it has been revealed that the city, temple and Jewish people are all alike doomed to perish one day.” (16)

·        “Barnabas” gives many examples of how the OT was appropriated as Christian allegory using bizarre rules of interpretation. The writer misquotes Gen 14:14, saying Abraham circumcised 318 servants; ignoring that it was written in Hebrew, he takes the Greek letters which stand for that number “I E T” and interprets this as “IE(sus)” and T as the sign of the cross. (13)

·        The Didaskalia (3rd c) distinguished between the moral law of the OT which Christians still follow and the secondary laws that applied only to Israel.

 

Gnosticism (those “in the know”)

·         Discovery of Gnostic Nag Hammadi library of about 50 texts (1947); before this find, most of what we knew came from their critics.

·         Justin and Irenaeus claim that Simon Magus (Acts 8) started the Gnostic traditions, declaring himself a god. He consorted with a prostitute named Helena, whom he claimed was the first creation of his mind, the first mother, who had lived in many different women including Helen of Troy (Adv. Her. 1.23).

·         Irenaeus repeats a story by Polycarp about John running from a bathhouse in Ephesus when Cerinthus entered, fearing the roof would fall on this enemy of truth (Adv. Her. 3.3.4).

·         The ultimate Transcendent Being could not be the source of creation, nor could It interact with the world in any way. There are many gods, emanations, generations of spirit beings, finally descending to the level of the material world. A demiurge (divine artisan, discussed by Plato) who created the world was the God of OT, not the same as the God of NT, the father of Jesus. [see details under Irenaeus]